*SHOW Families of Gymnosperms 
1st July 2007. 
 
*ITEM DESCRIPTIONS 
 
# Araucariaceae/
1<Monkey Puzzles, Norfolk Island Pine, Kauri, Candelabra Tree> 4,1<in
some, the leaves remain green for up to fifteen years> 5,1 9,1<with
resin canals in stem medullary rays and cortex, and in the leaves> 10,2
11,2 17,1<often broad-based, with many parallel veins>/2 18,1/2<mostly>
19,2 20,1<although the main branches are usually whorled> 21,1
23,1<\i{}Agathis\i0{}, usually>/2<\i{}Araucaria\i0{}> 26,1 27,1<almost
spherical> 28,1 29,2<the seed either shed attached to the cone scale,
with the latter serving as wings, or detaching from the cone scale along
with a wing> 30,3 31,1 32,2<though in \i{}Araucaria\i0{} the tip is
conspicuously free, constituting a ligule> 34,1 35,2 37<male cones
elongate, the microsporophylls with 5-15 abaxial pollen-sacs in
\i{}Agathis\i0{}, 8-15 in \i{}Araucaria\i0{}. The pollen grains produce
numerous prothallial cells> 38,5-15 39,2 40<pollination anemophilous,
with fertilization involving lodgement of the grain on the cone-scale
(or in \i{}Araucaria\i0{} on the ligule), and growth of the pollen
tube to the ovule via a nucellar beak projecting through the micropyle
(i.e., no liquid drop mechanism)> 44,1 45,2(-4) 46,1 47,1<usually,
though often weakly developed>/2<\i{}Araucaria cunninghamii\i0{}> 48,1
49,2 50,1<\i{}Agathis australis\i0{}>/2<usually> 51,2 52,2 54,1 55,2
58,2 59,2 64,2 66,1 67,2 69,2 70,2 71,2 72,3<or
araucarioid>/2&3<\i{}Araucaria cunninghamii\i0{}> 73,2 76,2-4
77<Southern hemisphere, excluding Africa> 78,4&9&10&11&15 79,13 80,40
81<\i{}Agathis\i0{}, \i{}Araucaria\i0{}, \i{}Wollemia\i0{}> 82,4 83,-
84,- 85,- 86,2 88<araucari> 87<\i{}Wollemia  nobilis\i0{} was discovered 
in 1994 in a temperate rainforest wilderness area of the Wollemi 
National Park in New South Wales. Its closest relatives seem to be
Jurassic species of \i{}Agathis\i0{}, and Cretacious fossils 
represented by the form genus \i{}Araucarites\i0{} and 
\i{}Araucarioxylon\i0{} (wood)>

 
# Cephalotaxaceae/
1<Plum Yew, Cows Tail Pine> 2<~Taxaceae> 4,1 5<small>,1&2 9,1<with
resin canals in stem pith and cortex, and in the leaves> 10,2/3 11,1
12,1 17,2 18,2 19,2 20,1 21,1 22,1 23<usually>,2 26,1<the young cone
comprising a thick, rather fleshy axis bearing a few bracts, each bract
subtending a pair of transversely placed ovules of which only one or two
per cone mature to produce olive-like seeds> 28,2 29,1
31<ostensibly>,4<in pairs, though arguably each pair terminates an
extremely abbreviated short-shoot, with the latter then seen as
representing the ovuliferous scale of other coniferous cones>
35<paired,>,1 36,1<this fused with the nucellus except at its apex>
37<the male cones with spirally arranged microsporophylls. Prothallial
cells lacking> 38,(2-)3 39,2 40<pollination anemophilous, involving a
liquid drop mechanism> 42,1 43,4 44,2 45,2 46,1 47,2 48,1 49,2 50,2
51,2 52,2 54,3 55,2 56,2 58,1 59,1 60,1 61,2 62,1 64,2 66,2 67,1 68,2
69,1 70,2 71,2 72,2 73,2 77<Eastern Himalayas to Japan> 78,4 79,12 80,7-8
81<\i{}Cephalotaxus\i0{}> 82,4 83,- 84,- 85,- 86,3 88<cephalot> 
 
# Cupressaceae/
1<Cypresses, Incense Cedars, Junipers, Arbor Vitae> 2<currently
excluding Taxodiaceae> 4,1 5,1&2<with all their parts opposite and
decussate, or whorled> 9,1<exhibiting resin cells - not ducts - in the
wood, but with canals in the stem cortex and leaves> 11,1<often>/2
16,1<\i{}Juniperus\i0{}>/2 17<usually small,>,3<and
decurrent>/2<sometimes, like the juvenile leaves>/2&3<in
\i{}Juniperus\i0{}> 18<when linear,>,1<\i{}Juniperus\i0{}> 19,2 20,2/3
21,1/2<sometimes?> 22<in \i{}Fitzroya\i0{}, \i{}Juniperus\i0{},>,1<no
information for the rest>/- 23,1/2<e.g., usually so in
\i{}Juniperus\i0{}> 26,1 27,1/2 28,2/3<then the whorls of three or four
members> 29,1 30,1<and berry-like, \i{}Juniperus\i0{}>/2/3 31,1 32,3<the
"ovuliferous scale" vestiges apparently so reduced that the ovules are
virtually borne on the bracts> 34,1-2<rarely>/3-20 35,1 37<male cone
scales opposite, decussate or whorled> 38,(2-)3-6 39,2 40<pollination
anemophilous, involving a liquid drop mechanism> 44,1/2
45,2<usually>/5-6/9 46,1/2 47,1/2 48,1<mostly>/2<e.g., in \i{}Thuya\i0{}
spp.> 49,1/2 50,1/2 51,1/2 52,2 54,3<uniseriate, except in
\i{}Thuya\i0{}> 55,1/2<mostly> 56,1<e.g., in \i{}Juniperus
thurifera\i0{} and \i{}Thuya occidentalis\i0{}>/2<mostly> 58,2 59,1
60,1<usually>/2 61,1/2 62,1/2 63,1<commonly>/2<then usually only 1-2
cells wide> 64,1<e.g., \i{}Chamaecyparis nootkatensis\i0{}>/2<usually>
65<when present,>,2 66,1/2<usually> 67,2/1 68<wnen
present,>,1<\i{}Thujopsis\i0{}>/2<usually> 69,1/2 70,1/2 71,2
72,3<mostly>/2&3<\i{}Tetraclinis\i0{}>/3&4<rarely, in
\i{}Chamaecyparis\i0{}>/4<e.g., some \i{}Thuja\i0{} spp.,
\i{}Thujopsis\i0{}> 73,2 77<Cosmopolitan>
78,1&2&3&4&5&6&7&8&9&10&11&12&13&14&15 79,11 80<\i{}s. str\i0{}.,
about>,115 81<\i{}Actinostrobus\i0{}, \i{}Callitris\i0{},
\i{}Calocedrus\i0{}, \i{}Chamaecyparis\i0{}, \i{}Cupressus\i0{},
\i{}Diselma\i0{}, \i{}Fitzroya\i0{}, \i{}Fokienia\i0{},
\i{}Juniperus\i0{}, \i{}Libocedrus\i0{}, \i{}Neocallitropsis\i0{},
\i{}Pilgerodendron\i0{}, \i{}Platycladus\i0{}, \i{}Tetraclinis\i0{},
\i{}Thuja\i0{}, \i{}Thujopsis\i0{}, \i{}Widdringtonia\i0{}> 82,4 83,-
84,- 85,- 86,3 88<cupressa> 
 
# Cycadaceae/
3,1<of palm-like habit, from small to 12 metres high and leaves to 3 m
or more long, the subterranean to emergent stem to 40 cm wide, with
relatively little wood, clothed in persistent leaf bases> 4,1 5,1/2/-
8,1 9,2<secreting mucilage> 14,2<with girdling leaf traces> 15,1<the
basal ones sometimes reduced to spines> 23,2<via X and Y chromosomes>
26,2<the leaf-like sporophylls alernating with vegetative fronds in a
loose terminal rosette, through which the stem subsequently continues to
grow> 31,3<the tomentose sporophylls flat and elongate, with dilated,
acuminate and toothed or pinnatifid apices> 33,(1-)3-8<borne marginally
in notches in the lower part of the megasporophyll> 35,1 38<numerous,
borne abaxially on the cuneate microsporophylls> 39,2 40<pollination
probably always anemophilous; involving a liquid drop mechanism> 41,1
42<large,>,1 43,4<from the outer layer of the testa, which surrounds the
woody inner one> 44,2 45,2 46,1<absent, but a few species exhibit
successive cambia giving rise to co-axial cylinders of xylem and phloem>
54,2 76,2-4 77<Southeast Asia, southern China, Malaysia, tropical
Australia, Oceania, Japan, Africa, and Madagascar> 78,4&6&8&9&10&11
79,11 80<about>,90 81<\i{}Cycas\i0{}> 82,1 83,1 84,- 85,- 86,- 87<leaves
and leaflets usually with more or less circinate vernation> 88<cycadace>
 
# Ephedraceae/
5<small>,1<rarely>/2<mostly being shrubby switch plants, often
rhizomatous>/3<a few> 7,1 10,2/3 11<grooved-cylindrical,>,2 14,1<tiny,
reduced> 17,3<unilacunar, with two leaf traces> 20,2/3<then usually in
whorls of three> 23<nearly always>,2<but with occasional reports of
bisexual inflorescences> 24,1<with stamen-like antherophores, but with
exposed, gymnospermous ovules> 26,1<the cones solitary or clustered at
the compound inflorescence nodes, each consisting of a short-shoot
bearing 2-4 pairs or whorls of overlapping bracts, the proximal bracts
empty and the 1-3 terminal ones subtending female flowers> 28,2/3
30<commonly red, often>,1 31,5 35,1<with an elongated, tubular
micropyle> 36,1/2<depending on interpretation of the outer one, which
may be interpreted as perianth> 37<male inflorescences solitary or
clustered at nodes, each composed of 2-8 descussate pairs or 3-part
whorls of membranous bracts, the proximal ones empty; the male flowers
with a perianth comprising 2 antero-posteriorly united, orbicular or
obovate members, beyond which the prolonged axis bears 2-8 sessile or
stipitate, 2-locular anthers> 39,2 40<pollination involving a liquid
drop mechanism; anemophily is said to be prevalent, but with
entomophily recorded in a few species> 42<one to three per cone,>,2 44,2
45,2 46,2<ring-porous> 53,1 73,2 76,2-4 77<semiarid and arid areas in
North America, Mexico, South America, Europe, Asia, and N and E Africa
(including Canary Islands)> 78,2&3&4&5&6&7&8&9&12&13&14&15 80<about>,40
81<\i{}Ephedra\i0{}> 82,3 83,- 84,- 85,3 87<several species yield
ephedrine, an adrenalin-breakdown inhibitor widely used to relieve
symptoms of asthma, sinusitis, etc.> 88<ephedrac> 
 
# Ginkgoaceae/
1<Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree> 4,2 5,1<to 30m high> 9,2<secreting mucilage>
10,1-2<irregularly whorled or produced at indefinite intervals> 11,2
12,2<cf. those of \i{}Larix\i0{} and \i{}Cedrus\i0{}, producing leaf
clusters annually for many years and sometimes subsequently becoming
transformed into long-shoots bearing scattered leaves> 16<more or
less>,1<being more or less bilobed on long-shoots and entire on
short-shoots> 17,1<long-petiolate, the fan-shaped lamina with numerous,
regularly dichotomizing veins> 19,- 20,1 21,2 23,2<via an XX female/XY
male genetic system> 26,2<the more or less sessile female flowers each
comprising a naked ovule with a basal, collar-like rim theoretically
representing two megasporophylls; paired or in twos or threes
terminating long, axillary peduncles on the short-shoots> 31,2 35,1 36,1
37<male trees produce elongated, catkin-like strobili in the axils of
scales or leaves on short-shoots. These bear the numerous stamen-like
microsporangiophores, each with 2 pendulous microsporangia which dehisce
via a longitudinal slit> 38,2<pendulous male catkins borne 3-6 in the
axils of scales or leaves on the short shoots, with microsporophylls
each represented by a bractless, axillary main axis bearing laterally
towards its apex a pair of pendulous microsporangia dehiscing via
longitudinal slits> 39,2 41,1 42<wingless,>,1 43,4<via its fleshy outer
layer, which gives off a nauseating odour of rancid butter, and encloses
a stony middle layer, which in turn encloses a watery inner layer
surrounding the female prothallus> 44,2 45<usually>,2<unlike the foliage
leaves in exhibiting mesarch vascular strands> 46,2 48,1 49,2 54,2 55,2
56,2 59,1 61,1 62,2 63,1 71,2 72,3<or araucarioid> 73,2<but mucilage
canals occur throughout the plant> 76,2 77<the single species is
possibly native to China, but is now unknown in the wild; long
cultivated in China and Japan for its edible seeds and its supposed
medicinal properties> 78,1&2&3&4&7&10&12&15 79,12 80,1<\i{}Ginkgo
biloba\i0{}> 81<\i{}Ginkgo\i0{}> 82,2 83,- 84,1 85,- 86,- 87<leaves
without resin canals, and differing conspicuously from Coniferales in
that fertilization is effected by flagellate, motile spermatozoids - cf.
cycads, ferns and other vascular cryptogams. Obvious relatives of \i{}G.
biloba\i0{} occur in fossil deposits up to 200 million years old. Now
widely grown around the world from material originating from China, and
exploited as "alternative medicine".> 88<ginkgo> 
 
# Gnetaceae/
4,1 5<small>,1<a few>/2/3<mostly> 9,U 11,2 14,1 17,1<elliptic,
angiosperm-like, with reticulate venation, exstipulate, leathery, with
hydathodes> 19,2 20,2 23,1/2<mostly> 24,1<with stamen-like
antherophores, but with exposed, gymnospermous ovules> 25<the female
flowers borne in spikes, which are often grouped into more complex
inflorescences. The spikes bear decussate bracts, in the axils of which
are condensed partial inflorescences of about 3-8 female flowers, which
form whorls round the stem and are intermingled with numerous hairlike
structures. The female flower has a tubular perianth, cf. that of
\i{}Ephedra\i0{}, around the single, apparently 2-integumented ovule.
After fertilization, the perianth becomes fleshy, the outer integument
becomes woody, and the whole forms a drupe-like fruit> 26,2<being
produced in the female flowers of uncertain morphological
interpretation, in whorls on the spikelike inflorescence axes, each
whorl subtended by a fleshy collar> 31,5 35,1<with a long, projecting,
tubular micropyle> 36,2<if the outer layer is interpreted as a
perianth>/3 37<the male flowers in spikes, these often grouped into more
complex inflorescences. The spike bears decussate bracts, in the axils
of which are condensed, partial inflorescences of up to 40 flowers. The
effectively whorled flowers are intermingled with hairlike structures.
At the top of each nodal group in the male inflorescence there is
usually a single ring of female flowers, which are rarely fertile. Male
flowers with a tubular (2-membered) perianth, and at the top of the
projecting axis, right and left, are two sessile unilocular anthers>
39,2 40<pollination mostly anemophilous, but entomophily associated with
nectar secretion is known in a few species; involving a liquid drop
mechanism> 44,2 45,2 53,1 76,3&4 77<Indomalaysia, tropical parts of West
Africa, Fiji and the northern regions of South America> 78,4&6&9&11&15
80<about>,30 81<\i{}Gnetum\i0{}> 82,3 83,- 84,- 85,2 86,- 87<flowers
monosexual, in catkin-like formations; the male flower consists of a
stamen and perianth, and female flower of an ovule with 2 integuments
and perianth> 88<gnetacea> 
 
# Pinaceae/
1<Pines, Cedars, Firs, Spruces, Larches, Hemlocks> 4,1<mostly>/2<in
\i{}Larix\i0{} and \i{}Pseudolarix\i0{}> 5,1<nearly all>/2<a few species
of \i{}Pinus\i0{}> 9,1<with resin canals in various parts of the plants,
though absent from the secondary wood of \i{}Abies\i0{},
\i{}Pseudolarix\i0{}, \i{}Cedrus\i0{} and \i{}Tsuga\i0{}> 10,1/2/1-2
11,2 12,1/2 17,2 18,1 19<paired or>,1/2<all are borne singly in
\i{}Abies\i0{}, \i{}Picea\i0{}, \i{}Pseudotsuga\i0{} and \i{}Tsuga\i0{},
while in \i{}Pinus\i0{} they are all paired or clustered on highly
contracted short-shoots, and in \i{}Cedrus\i0{} and \i{}Larix\i0{} they
are borne singly on leading long-shoots as well as in clusters on the
short-shoots> 20,1<or in pseudo-whorls>/- 21,1<mostly>/2<e.g., some
\i{}Picea\i0{} species?> 22,2<marginal or median>/3/4/5<rarely>/6 23,1
26,1<which are confined to mature branches> 27,1 28,1 29,1/2<in
\i{}Abies\i0{}, the cone scales are shed, but the axis remains attached>
30,3 31,1 32,1 34,2 35,2 36,1 37<the crowded male cones, which take the
place of short-shoots, bear spirally arranged microsporophylls each two
abaxial pollen-sacs dehiscing via a longitudinal slit. The pollen grains
have two prothallial cells> 38,2 39,1<e.g., \i{}Pinus\i0{}>/2<e.g.,
\i{}Larix\i0{}> 40<pollination anemophilous, and in genera with pollen
grains equipped with air bladders (e.g., \i{}Pinus\i0{}), it involves a
liquid drop mechanism, the grain being drawn into contact with the
nucellus as it floats in receding micropylar fluid> 44,1 45,(3-)4(-15)
46,2 47,1<brown, reddish or yellow>/2<whitish, creamy or grey> 48,1/2
49,1/2 50,1/2 51,2 52,2 54,2/3<then the pitting uniseriate> 55,2 56,1/2
57,1<in \i{}Tsuga\i0{} spp.>/2<mostly> 58,2 59,1/1-2<e.g.,
\i{}Larix\i0{}>/2<e.g., \i{}Picea\i0{}, \i{}Pinus\i0{}> 60<when
present,>,2 61,2 62,1/2 63,1/2<then 1-2 or 1-5 cells wide> 64,1/2
65<when present,>,1/2 66,1/2 67,2/1 68<when present,>,1/2 69,1/2 70,1/2
71,1/2 72,1/2/2&3/4/2&3&4<\i{}Cedrus\i0{}>/5 73,1<e.g., \i{}Larix\i0{},
\i{}Picea\i0{}, \i{}Pinus\i0{}>/2<\i{}Abies\i0{}> 74,1/2 75,2 76,1-4
77<Northern hemisphere, south to Sumatra, Java, Central America and West
Indies> 78,1&2&3&4&5&6&9&11&12&13&14&16 79,12/13<\i{}Pseudotsuga\i0{}
only> 80,232 81<\i{}Abies\i0{}, \i{}Cathaya\i0{}, \i{}Cedrus\i0{},
\i{}Keteleeria\i0{}, \i{}Larix\i0{}, \i{}Nothotsuga\i0{},
\i{}Picea\i0{}, \i{}Pinus\i0{}, \i{}Pseudolarix\i0{},
\i{}Pseudotsuga\i0{}, \i{}Tsuga\i0{}> 82,4 83,- 84,- 85,- 86,1
88<pinaceae> 
 
# Podocarpaceae/
1<Podocarps, Yellow-woods, Red Pine, Huon Pine, Celery-top Pine, Prince
Alberts Yew> 4,1 5,1&2 9,1<with resin canals in the leaves, but only
resin-containing parenchyma cells elsewhere> 11,1/2
13,1<\i{}Phyllocladus\i0{}>/2 17<relatively>,1/2/3 18<when linear,>,1/2
19,2 20,1<mostly>/2<decussate, in \i{}Microcachrys\i0{}> 21,1/2 22<when
present,>,1 23,1<rarely>/2 26,1<the cones few-bracted, and each bearing
only one seed to maturity>/2<ostensibly, the cone being sometimes
reduced to a swollen, fleshy receptacle with a single terminal ovule, so
that its morphological homologies are esoteric>
31<ostensibly>,2/1<except in \i{}Phyllocladus\i0{} and
\i{}Microstrobus\i0{}, the vestigial ovuliferous scale is usually more
or less folded round the ovule, constituting an extra envelope
designated the epimatium, which is itels sometimes fused to the
integument> 32,1/- 34<assuming they are recognised as such,>,1/-
35,1<rarely>/2 37<male cones catkin-like, with numerous sporophylls each
bearing two sporangia> 38,2 39,1<2 or 3, sometimes well developed,
sometimes poorly developed or vestigial>/2<e.g., \i{}Saxegothaea\i0{}>
40<the pollination mechanisms are diverse, being by liquid drop
mechanism only when the grains are equipped with well developed air
bladders (cf. \i{}Pinaceae\i0{})> 42,1
43<variously>,1/2/3/4<individually or combinations> 44,2 45,2 46,1/2
47,1/2 48,1 49,2 50,2 51,2 52,1<\i{}Podocarpus spicatus\i0{}>/2<usually>
54,3 55,2 56,2 57,1<e.g., in \i{}Lagarostrobus\i0{}>/2 58,2 59,1/2
60<when present,>,1/2 61,2 62,1<\i{}Saxegothaea\i0{}>/2 64,1<usually, in
\i{}Podocarpus\i0{}>/2 65<when present,>,2 66,1/2 67,2/1 68<wen
present,>,1/2 69,1/2 70,2 71,2 72,1/3/1&4/3&4/4 73,2 77<Mostly Southern
hemisphere, extending north to Japan, Central America and West Indies>
78,4&6&7&8&9&10&11&12&13&14&15 79,9-19<only 14 and 16 unrepresented>
80,173 81<\i{}Acmopyle\i0{}, \i{}Afrocarpus\i0{}, \i{}Dacrydium\i0{},
\i{}Dacrycarpus\i0{}, \i{}Falcatifolium\i0{}, \i{}Halocarpus\i0{},
\i{}Lagarostrobus\i0{}, \i{}Lepidothamnus\i0{}, \i{}Manoao\i0{},
\i{}Microcachrys\i0{}, \i{}Microstrobos\i0{}, \i{}Nageia\i0{}
(\i{}Decussocarpus\i0{}), \i{}Parasitaxus\i0{}, \i{}Pherosphaera\i0{},
\i{}Phyllocladus\i0{}, \i{}Podocarpus\i0{}, \i{}Prumnopitys\i0{},
\i{}Retrophyllum\i0{}, \i{}Saxegothaea\i0{}, \i{}Sundacarpus\i0{}> 82,4
83,- 84,- 85,- 86,2 88<podocarp> 
 
# Sciadopityaceae/
1<Japanese Umbrella Pine> 4,1 5,1 9,1 11,2 12<reasonably interpretable
as>,2 16,1 17,3<on the long-shoots>/4<on the short-shoots>
19,1/2<depending on interpretation of the peculiar leaves> 20,3 21,1
22,4<this incomplete abaxially> 26,1 27,1 28,1 29,2 30,3 31,1 32,1
34,5-9 35,2 37<male cones subspherical, in terminal, compact clusters,
with spirally arranged sporophylls> 38,5-9<?> 39,2 40<pollination
anemophilous, involving a liquid drop mechanism> 44,1 45,2 46,2 47,1
48,1 49,1 50,1 51,2 52,2 54,3 55,2 56,2 58,2 59,2 64,2 66,1 67,2 69,2
70,2 71,2 72,1 73,2 77<Japan> 78,4 79,10 80,1<\i{}S. verticillata\i0{}>
81<\i{}Sciadopitys\i0{}> 82,4 83,- 84,- 85,- 86,3 88<sciadopi> 
 
# Stangeriaceae/
3,1<fern-like rosette plants, with short, tuberous, irregularly branched
subterranean stems producing relatively little wood, the leaf bases not
persistent> 4,1 5,- 8,1 9,2<secreting mucilage> 14,2<the rachides with
sub-circinate or conspicuously circinate vernation> 15,2 20,1 23,2<via
an XY chromosome system> 26,1 31,3<the megasporophylls peltate> 33,2<the
ovules on the inner-facing margins of the expanded hexagonal ends of the
megasporophyll> 35,1 38<numerous, borne abaxially on peltate
microsporophylls> 39,2 40<pollination probably anemophilous; involving a
liquid drop mechanism> 41,1 42<large,>,1 43,4<from the outer layer of
the testa, which surrounds the woody inner one> 44,2 45,2 46,1<absent>
54,2<in \i{}Bowenia\i0{}?>/3<i.e., scalariform in \i{}Stangeria\i0{}>
76,2-4 77<South Africa (\i{}Stangeria\i0{}), tropical Australia
(\i{}Bowenia\i0{})> 78,7&10 79,8<\i{}Stangeria\i0{}>/- 80,3
81<\i{}Stangeria\i0{} and \i{}Bowenia\i0{}> 82,1 83,1 84,- 85,- 86,-
88<stangeri> 
 
# Taxaceae/
1<Yews, California Nutmeg> 2<including Amentotaxaceae, Austrotaxaceae,
Torreyaceae> 4,1 5<profusely branching>,1&2 9,1<with \i{}Torreya\i0{}
exhibiting a resin canal in the leaf and resin cells in the
wood>/2<\i{}Taxus\i0{} and \i{}Austrotaxus\i0{}, except that resin cells
have rarely been reported from roots> 10,1/2/3 11,1 12,1 17<more or
less>,2<often somewhat asymmetric> 18,2 19,2 20,1<though often appearing
two-ranked on mature shoots> 21,1<in \i{}Torreya\i0{}>/2<mostly, e.g.
\i{}Taxus\i0{}> 22<when present,>,1 23<usually>,2 26<solitary,
arillate,>,2 31,2<terminating inconspicuous secondary dwarf shoots, as
in most yews, or terminating visible dwarf shoots with a few basal
scales, as in \i{}Taxus canadensis\i0{}, but uncomplicated by vestiges
representing reduced short-shoots of the kind characterizing true
conifers> 35,1 36,1 37<the small male cones bearing peltate-symmetric,
\i{}Equisetum\i0{}-like sporangiophores with 6-8 pendulous pollen-sacs
in \i{}Taxus\i0{}, or dorsiventral scale-like sporophylls with 4 abaxial
sacs in \i{}Torreya\i0{}. In \i{}Austrotaxus\i0{}, each sporangiphore is
subtended by a bract> 38,2-9 39,2<?> 40<pollination anemophilous,
involving a liquid drop mechanism> 42,1 43,2<a secondary outgrowth
from the floral axis, which varies somewhat in form among the genera>
44,2 45,2 46,2 47,1 48,1 49,1<\i{}Torreya\i0{}>/2 50,2 51,2 52,2 54,2
55,2 56,2 58,1 59,1<in \i{}Austrotaxus\i0{}>/2 60,1<in
\i{}Austrotaxus\i0{},>/2 61,2 62,1<in \i{}Torreya californica\i0{}>/2
63,1 64,2 66,1<Austrotaxus>/2 67,2/1 68<when present,>,1/2 69,1 70,2
71,2 72,3/3&4<in \i{}Austrotaxus\i0{}> 73,2 76,2 77<Northern hemisphere,
south to Celebes and Mexico, \i{}Austrotaxus\i0{} in New Caledonia>
78,1&2&3&4&10&11&12 79,12 80,17 81<\i{}Amentotaxus\i0{},
\i{}Austrotaxus\i0{}, \i{}Pseudotaxus\i0{}, \i{}Taxus\i0{},
\i{}Torreya\i0{}> 87<The organization of female reproductive shoots in
Taxaceae correspond with those of the ancestral taxads in their relative
morphological simplicity (see above), although some extant forms exhibit
aggregations of fertile shoots which may represent a relatively recent
development. \i{}Taxus baccata\i0{} has been well known from ancient
times for its toxic properties, and has been thoroughly researched in
that context. In addition to the alkaloid taxine, it includes
hydrocyanic acid and ephedrine as well as an extremely irritant volatile
oil, and all parts of the plant (fresh or dried) except the aril are
poisonous to humans and livestock. Surprisingly, information on other
members of the family in this connection is proving elusive.>
88<taxaceae> 82,4 83-85,- 86,3
 
# Taxodiaceae/
1<Redwoods, Sequoia, Wellingtonia, Swamp Cypresses, Tasmanian Cedars>
2<referred to \i{}Cupressaceae\i0{} in recent treatments>
4,1/2<\i{}Taxodium\i0{}, \i{}Metasequoia\i0{}> 5,1<with parts mostly
spirally arranged> 9,1<with resin cells but no canals in the wood, and
canals in the stem cortex and leaves - cf. \i{}Cupressaceae\i0{}>
10,1<mainly>/2<more or less, in \i{}Cunninghamia\i0{} only>/3<in
\i{}Metasequoia\i0{} only> 11,1/2 12,1/2<associated with phyllomorphs,
e.g in \i{}Taxodium\i0{} and \i{}Metasequoia\i0{}> 17,2<or cultrate>/3
18<when linear,>,1/2 19,2 20<alternate or>,1 21,1 22,1/5 23,1 26,1 27,1
28,1<nearly always>/2<\i{}Metasequoia\i0{}> 29,1/2 30,3 31,1 32,2<though
almost free early in cone development>/3<e.g., in \i{}Cunninghamia\i0{}
and \i{}Taiwania\i0{}, where according to Farjon and Garcia (2002) the
"ovuliferous scale" vestiges are so reduced that the ovules are
virtually borne on the bracts, cf. Cupressaceae \i{}sensu stricto\i0{}>
34,2-7 35,1<\i{}Taxodium\i0{}, \i{}Cryptomeria\i0{}>/2 37<male cones
with spirally arranged microsporophylls> 38,2-7/9<?> 39,2 40<pollination
anemophilous, and involving a liquid drop mechanism although the
grains lack air bladders> 44,1 46,2 47,1<often>/2 48,1<mostly>/2<e.g.,
\i{}Taxodium distichum\i0{}> 49,1/2 50,1/2 51,1/2 52,2 54,2/3 55,2 56,2
57,1<e.g., in \i{}Sequoia sempervirens\i0{}>/2 58,2 59,1 60,1/2 61,1/2
62,1 63,1/2<then usually only 1-2 cells wide?> 64,1<\i{}Tsuga\i0{}>/2
65<when present,>,2 66,2 67,2/1 68<when present,>,1/2 69,1/2 70,2 71,2
72,3/4/3&4 73,2 76,2&3 77<Eastern Asia, Tasmania and North America>
78,4&10&12 79,11 80,14 81<\i{}Athrotaxis\i0{}, \i{}Cryptomeria\i0{},
\i{}Cunninghamia\i0{}, \i{}Glyptostrobus\i0{}, \i{}Metasequoia\i0{},
\i{}Sequoia\i0{}, \i{}Sequoiadendron\i0{}, \i{}Taiwania\i0{},
\i{}Taxodium\i0{}> 82,4 83,- 84,- 85,- 86,3 87<the genera are mostly
monotypic. For cone-scale morphology, see Farjon and Garcia,
\i{}American Journal of Botany\i0{} 2003;90:8-16> 88<taxodiac> 
 
# Welwitschiaceae/
3<very strangely>,1 4,1 5,4 6,1 14<strap-shaped and very peculiar,
but>,1 17,1<the veins sub-parallel, some of them anastomosing or
terminating blindly> 19,- 23,2<and entomophilous> 24,1<with stamen-like
antherophores, but with exposed, gymnospermous ovules> 25<the female
flowers borne in dichasially branching inflorescences arising from a
series of transverse ridges parallel with and internal to the leaf
bases. Each inflorescence branch terminates in a regular cone with
opposite or decussate scales which are red at maturity. The flowers with
a tubular perianth seemingly homolgous with the two members of the outer
whorl of the male flower (q.v.), one erect ovule, and no rudimentary
stamens> 26,1<with solitary female flowers the axils of the scales> 28,2
31,5 35,1<with an elongated, tubular micropyle> 36,1/2<if the outer one
is interpreted as perianth> 37<male flowers borne like those of female
plants in dichasially branching inflorescences arising from a series of
transverse ridges parallel with and internal to the leaf bases. The male
flowers in bract axils, with the outer whorl of their 2+2 perianth
transverse to the bract, 6 stamens united below, with 3-locular anthers,
and a rudimentary gynoecium> 40<pollination involving a liquid drop
mechanism; anemophilous, but with partial entomophily> 44<usually
maturing only one per cone,>,1<via a broad wing developed from the outer
integument> 45,2<persisting after germination for 1-2 years> 53,1
76,2-3 77<confined to SW Africa, with a disjunct distribution there>
78,7 80,1 81<\i{}Welwitschia\i0{}> 82,3 83,- 84,- 85,1 88<welwitsc> 
 
# Zamiaceae/
3,1<a few being fern-like rosette plants, with short, tuberous
subterranean or emergent stems (species of \i{}Macrozamia\i0{},
\i{}Zamia\i0{}, \i{}Encephalartos\i0{}), but mostly of palm-like habit,
from small to 15(-20) m high with leaves from 5 cm to 4 m or more long,
the stem to 40 cm wide, with relatively little wood, clothed in
persistent leaf bases> 4,1 5,1/2/- 8,1 9,2<secreting mucilage> 14<with
girdling leaf traces,>,2<nearly always>/3<occasionally> 15,3 23,2<via X
and Y chromosomes> 26,1<these ranging from 2 cm long in \i{}Zamia
pygmaea\i0{} to 70 cm or more in some \i{}Macrozamia\i0{} spp.> 31,3<the
megasporophylls more or less peltate> 33,2(-3)<the ovules on the adaxial
margins of the megasporophylls, protected within the strobilus by their
peltate or flattened and overlapping tips> 35,1 39,2 40<pollination
probably always anemophilous; involving a liquid drop mechanism> 41,1
42<large,>,1 43,4<from the outer layer of the testa, which surrounds the
woody inner one> 44,2 45,2(-3) 46,1<absent, but a few species of
\i{}Macrozamia\i0{} and \i{}Encephalartos\i0{} exhibit co-axial
cylinders of secondary xylem and phloem, derived from successive cambia>
54,2/3<e.g., scalariform in \i{}Zamia\i0{}> 76,2-4 77<Australia
(\i{}Chigua\i0{}, \i{}Lepidozamia\i0{}, \i{}Macrozamia\i0{}), Neotropics
(Georgia to Bolivia), \i{}Ceratozamia\i0{}, \i{}Dioon\i0{},
\i{}Microcycas\i0{}, \i{}Zamia\i0{}) and sub-Saharan Africa
(\i{}Encephalartos\i0{}). All species occupy subtropical or tropical
habitats, with precipitation regimes ranging from the semiarid to swamps
or tropical rainforests> 78,7&10&12&13&15 79,8<\i{}Ceratozamia\i0{},
\i{}Zamia\i0{}>/9<mostly>/13<\i{}Microcycas\i0{}> 80<over>,150
81<\i{}Ceratozamia\i0{}, \i{}Chigua\i0{},
\i{}Dioon\i0{}, \i{}Encephalartos\i0{}, \i{}Lepidozamia\i0{},
\i{}Macrozamia\i0{}, \i{}Microcycas\i0{}, \i{}Zamia\i0{}> 82,1 83,1 84,-
85,- 86,- 87<the young leaves sub-circinate in (e.g.)
\i{}Ceratozamia\i0{} and \i{}Zamia\i0{}, but absolutely straight in
\i{}Dioon\i0{}, \i{}Macrozamia\i0{} and \i{}Encephalartos\i0{}>
88<zamiacea> 
 
# Ancient Conifers and Taxads/
2<including \i{}Lebachia\i0{}, \i{}Ernestiodendron\i0{},
\i{}Walchia\i0{}, \i{}Walchiostrobus\i0{}, \i{}Pseudovoltzia\i0{},
\i{}Palaeotaxus\i0{}, \i{}Araucarioxylon\i0{}> 80,- 
87<Gymnosperms as a group merit study by all
serious biology students, not only because of the ecological and
economic significance of extant forms, but by virtue of their well
documented evolutionary history. Distinctness since the early Mesozoic
of the conifer and taxad lineages is unambiguously demonstrated by the
fossil record; and the details of the evolutionary origins of coniferous
female cones are at least as compelling, and as intellectually
satisfying, as the far more widely publicized example of the evolution
of the horse's foot. In particular, Rudolph Florins elegant revelation
of the nature of the "ovuliferous scale", which involved extensive
comparative morphological and anatomical studies of both fossils and
extant forms, set admirable standards for palaeontologists and
taxonomists alike. \par{}\sb50{}The sample illustrations given here
exemplify a sequence of fossil conifers, progressing from the
Carboniferous epoch to the Cretaceous, with details of a present-day
taxodiaceous cone for comparison. They should suffice to explain (for
example) the peculiar vascularization of modern cones, with their
"inverted" vascular bundles. Further examples are provided with the
family descriptions, but students interested in pursuing the topic
properly should consult Florins classic (1951) summary paper, then
proceed to the modern literature.> 88<fossconi> 86,1&2&3
 
# Ancient Cycads/
80,- 87<The 9 genera and 65 species of extant cycads are the remnants of
the great cycadophyte assemblage, which has been in existence for at
least 200 million years, and which once dominated much of the land flora
worldwide. Their leaves are so common in Mesozoic deposits that before
by the turn of the 19th Century, the period had become known as the age
of cycads; and they provided raw material for a classic example of
early palaeobotanical/taxonomic detective work, when comparative studies
of leaf cuticles from fossils and living cycads revealed the two
distinct lineages now recognized as the Orders Cycadales and
Bennettitales (see illustrations). \par{}\sb50{} The living members are
all referred to the Cycadales, which are represented in early Mesozoic
deposits by plants closely resembling their present day descendants in
both general form and details of leaf anatomy. Fossil material of
Bennettitales first appears more or less contemporaneously with that of
Cycadales in the early Mesozoic, but they evidently surpassed them in
relative abundance and diversity for some 120 million years before
disappearing from the record in the mid-Cretaceous. In fact, the
majority of fronds from the age of cycads exhibit the epidermal
characteristics of Benettitales. The best known bennettitalean forms
combined gymnspermous ovules with reproductive structures superficially
resembling angiosperm flowers.> 88<fosscyca> 82,1
